Introduction
The school-to-prison pipeline represents one of the most troubling phenomena in American education and criminal justice. This systematic process funnels students—disproportionately those from marginalized communities—out of educational institutions and into juvenile and criminal justice systems. What began as a series of well-intentioned but ultimately harmful policies has evolved into a complex web of disciplinary practices, zero-tolerance approaches, and inequitable enforcement that continues to shape the lives of millions of young people.
The individuals who have influenced this pipeline fall into several categories: those who inadvertently helped create it through policy initiatives, those who identified and named it, those who have studied its mechanisms and impacts, those who have worked to dismantle it, and those whose personal experiences have illuminated its consequences. This comprehensive exploration chronicles 80 influential figures whose work, research, advocacy, or experiences have shaped our understanding of the school-to-prison pipeline and efforts to address it.
From policymakers and legal scholars to educators and formerly incarcerated youth advocates, these individuals represent diverse perspectives on a system that continues to challenge American ideals of equal opportunity and justice. Their collective contributions help us understand not only how the pipeline functions but also how it might be dismantled in favor of more equitable, restorative approaches to education and discipline.
Policy Architects and Early Influences
1. George W. Bush (b. 1946)
As the 43rd President of the United States, Bush signed the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) in 2002, which, while intended to improve educational outcomes, intensified high-stakes testing and accountability measures that some scholars argue contributed to pushing struggling students out of schools. The pressure on schools to demonstrate adequate yearly progress led some institutions to remove “problem students” who might lower test scores, often channeling them toward alternative schools or the juvenile justice system.
2. William J. Bennett (b. 1943)
As Secretary of Education under President Reagan from 1985 to 1988, Bennett advocated for strict disciplinary policies and championed the “broken windows” theory of discipline in schools. His emphasis on “moral education” and zero-tolerance approaches to misconduct helped establish the philosophical groundwork for punitive school discipline policies that would later become central to the pipeline. Bennett’s influential 1993 book “The Book of Virtues” further cemented his impact on educational philosophy in America.
3. James Q. Wilson (1931-2012)
Though not directly involved in education policy, criminologist Wilson co-authored the influential “Broken Windows” theory with George Kelling in 1982, which suggested that visible signs of crime and civil disorder create an environment that encourages further crime. This theory was subsequently applied to school discipline, leading to zero-tolerance policies for minor infractions under the belief that tolerating small disruptions would lead to larger ones—a cornerstone of pipeline-feeding policies.
4. John DiIulio (b. 1958)
In the 1990s, political scientist DiIulio coined the term “superpredators” to describe what he predicted would be a coming wave of remorseless juvenile criminals. This theory, though later disavowed by DiIulio himself, significantly influenced criminal justice and school discipline policies, promoting harsher penalties for youth and contributing to the criminalization of student behavior. The “superpredator” narrative particularly affected how Black and Latino youth were perceived and treated in educational settings.
5. Albert Shanker (1928-1997)
As president of the American Federation of Teachers from 1974 to 1997, Shanker advocated for reforms that included standardized testing and accountability measures. While his intentions focused on improving teacher professionalism and educational outcomes, some of these measures later contributed to the push-out of struggling students. Shanker’s complex legacy includes both important advocacy for teachers and support for structural changes that had unintended consequences.
6. Bill Clinton (b. 1946)
As President from 1993 to 2001, Clinton signed the 1994 Gun-Free Schools Act, which mandated that states receiving federal education funds must require local educational agencies to expel students who bring weapons to school. This legislation codified zero-tolerance policies at the federal level, significantly accelerating the formalization of the school-to-prison pipeline. Clinton’s administration also supported the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994, which increased funding for prison construction and expanded criminal penalties in ways that affected youth.
7. Rod Paige (b. 1933)
As Secretary of Education under President George W. Bush from 2001 to 2005, Paige was a key architect of No Child Left Behind implementation. Before his federal role, as superintendent of the Houston Independent School District, Paige implemented strict accountability systems that became known as the “Texas miracle”—later scrutinized for potentially pushing students out to improve test scores. His emphasis on quantifiable outcomes influenced how schools nationwide approached student discipline and retention.
8. Columbine High School Shooters (1999)
Though not policy influencers in a traditional sense, the perpetrators of the Columbine High School massacre created a watershed moment that accelerated the implementation of zero-tolerance policies, increased police presence in schools, and heightened school surveillance—all key elements of the school-to-prison pipeline. The national trauma following this event led to reactionary policies that prioritized security measures over nuanced approaches to student behavior and mental health.
9. Hillary Rodham Clinton (b. 1947)
As First Lady, Senator, and presidential candidate, Clinton’s advocacy for children’s issues included support for the 1994 Crime Bill and statements about addressing “superpredators,” which she later expressed regret for. Her evolution on these issues reflects broader shifts in understanding about juvenile justice and school discipline, but her earlier positions contributed to the policy framework that strengthened the pipeline.
10. Newt Gingrich (b. 1943)
As Speaker of the House from 1995 to 1999, Gingrich championed the “Contract with America,” which included provisions for tougher crime policies that indirectly affected school discipline approaches. His advocacy for strict accountability and consequences in both criminal justice and education helped shape the political climate that allowed pipeline-feeding policies to flourish. In later years, Gingrich has revised some of these positions and supported certain criminal justice reforms.
Legal Scholars and Researchers Who Named and Studied the Pipeline
11. Johanna Wald (b. 1962)
As Director of Strategic Planning at the Charles Hamilton Houston Institute for Race and Justice at Harvard Law School, Wald was among the first researchers to extensively document and analyze the school-to-prison pipeline. Her 2003 paper “Defining the School-to-Prison Pipeline” helped establish the term in academic and policy discussions. Wald’s work has been instrumental in connecting educational policies to incarceration outcomes and highlighting racial disparities in school discipline.
12. Russell Skiba (b. 1953)
A professor at Indiana University, Skiba’s groundbreaking research on racial disparities in school discipline has been foundational to understanding the pipeline. His studies in the 1990s and early 2000s conclusively demonstrated that students of color, particularly Black students, received disproportionately harsh punishments for similar behaviors compared to their white peers. Skiba’s work provided empirical evidence that helped move discussions about the pipeline beyond anecdotes to documented patterns.
13. Pedro Noguera (b. 1958)
An education sociologist and professor, Noguera has extensively researched the relationship between school discipline policies and academic outcomes, particularly for students of color. His book “The Trouble With Black Boys: And Other Reflections on Race, Equity, and the Future of Public Education” (2008) explored how educational institutions often fail young men of color and channel them toward criminalization rather than achievement. Noguera’s work emphasizes the need for supportive rather than punitive approaches to education.
14. Michelle Alexander (b. 1967)
Though primarily focused on mass incarceration more broadly, legal scholar Alexander’s influential book “The New Jim Crow” (2010) helped contextualize the school-to-prison pipeline within larger systems of racial control. Her analysis of how disciplinary systems target Black youth has been crucial to understanding the pipeline as part of systemic racism rather than merely the result of individual choices or isolated policies. Alexander’s work connected educational disparities to the larger framework of mass incarceration in America.
15. Monique W. Morris (b. 1972)
Morris’s groundbreaking research and advocacy have focused particularly on how the school-to-prison pipeline affects girls of color. Her book “Pushout: The Criminalization of Black Girls in Schools” (2016) documented how discipline policies uniquely impact Black girls and push them out of educational opportunities. Morris founded the National Black Women’s Justice Institute and has been instrumental in bringing gender-specific concerns into pipeline discussions.
16. Daniel J. Losen (b. 1964)
As director of the Center for Civil Rights Remedies at UCLA’s Civil Rights Project, Losen has produced essential research quantifying discipline disparities and their relationship to achievement gaps. His reports on suspension rates and their consequences have provided crucial data for policy advocates. Losen’s work combines legal analysis with empirical research to document how specific policies contribute to the pipeline and propose alternative approaches.
17. Gary Orfield (b. 1941)
Co-founder of the Civil Rights Project, first at Harvard and later at UCLA, Orfield has conducted extensive research on school segregation and its relationship to discipline disparities. His work demonstrates how the concentration of punitive policies in schools serving predominantly students of color connects to broader patterns of educational inequality. Orfield’s longitudinal studies have tracked how these disparities evolve over time and across different policy environments.
18. Judith Browne Dianis (b. 1968)
As Executive Director of the Advancement Project, Dianis has been at the forefront of legal advocacy addressing the school-to-prison pipeline. Her work combines litigation, research, and community organizing to challenge disciplinary policies that disproportionately impact students of color. Dianis has helped develop the framework for understanding how seemingly neutral policies can have discriminatory effects and violate students’ civil rights.
19. Catherine Y. Kim (b. 1972)
A law professor and former attorney with the American Civil Liberties Union, Kim co-authored “The School-to-Prison Pipeline: Structuring Legal Reform” (2010), one of the first comprehensive legal analyses of the pipeline. Her work examines how various legal frameworks—from constitutional rights to disability law—can be employed to challenge pipeline-feeding policies. Kim’s scholarship has provided a roadmap for legal challenges to exclusionary discipline practices.
20. James Bell (b. 1954)
Founder of the W. Haywood Burns Institute, Bell has pioneered data-driven approaches to addressing racial disparities in juvenile justice systems and their connection to school discipline. His work has been instrumental in helping jurisdictions recognize and quantify how their practices disproportionately affect youth of color. Bell’s community-centered approach emphasizes local solutions and the importance of involving affected communities in reform efforts.
Advocates and Activists Challenging the Pipeline
21. Marian Wright Edelman (b. 1939)
As founder of the Children’s Defense Fund, Edelman has been a tireless advocate for children’s rights and education. The CDF’s reports on the “Cradle to Prison Pipeline” helped broaden understanding of how educational inequities begin in early childhood and extend through K-12 education. Edelman’s moral leadership has framed pipeline issues as matters of civil rights and social justice, helping mobilize broader coalitions for reform.
22. Bryan Stevenson (b. 1959)
Founder of the Equal Justice Initiative, attorney Stevenson has represented numerous youth caught in both the juvenile and adult criminal justice systems. His advocacy has highlighted how school disciplinary issues escalate into criminal charges, particularly for Black youth. Stevenson’s book “Just Mercy” and his public speaking have educated millions about the connections between educational failure, juvenile justice, and mass incarceration.
23. Jonathan Kozol (b. 1936)
Through books like “Savage Inequalities” (1991) and “The Shame of the Nation” (2005), educator and author Kozol has documented the extreme resource disparities between schools serving affluent white students and those serving low-income students of color. While not explicitly focused on discipline, his work reveals the structural inequities that create the conditions for the pipeline to flourish. Kozol’s firsthand accounts from classrooms across America have personalized statistics about educational inequality.
24. Geoffrey Canada (b. 1952)
As founder of the Harlem Children’s Zone, Canada developed a comprehensive approach to breaking the cycle of poverty through education and community support. His model explicitly aims to prevent the school-to-prison pipeline by addressing the needs of the whole child from birth through college. Canada’s work demonstrates the effectiveness of preventative approaches and has influenced how educators conceptualize alternatives to punitive discipline.
25. Mark Warren (b. 1960)
A sociologist and community organizing scholar, Warren has documented how parent and youth organizing efforts have successfully challenged pipeline-feeding policies in communities across America. His book “A Match on Dry Grass: Community Organizing as a Catalyst for School Reform” showcases grassroots approaches to educational justice. Warren’s work highlights the importance of affected communities leading reform efforts rather than having solutions imposed from outside.
26. Patrisse Cullors (b. 1983)
As a co-founder of Black Lives Matter, Cullors has connected police violence to broader systems of racial control, including school discipline policies that criminalize Black youth. Her advocacy has helped frame school policing as a civil rights issue and connected it to broader questions about the role of law enforcement in communities of color. Cullors’s organizing work has mobilized young people to challenge pipeline policies in their own schools.
27. Phillip Atiba Goff (b. 1977)
As founder of the Center for Policing Equity, psychologist Goff has researched how implicit bias affects disciplinary decisions in schools, particularly when school resource officers are involved. His work provides scientific evidence for how racial stereotypes influence perceptions of student behavior and danger. Goff’s research-based approach has helped shift discussions about the pipeline away from focusing solely on intentional discrimination to include unconscious biases and structural factors.
28. Marc Mauer (b. 1950)
As Executive Director of The Sentencing Project, Mauer has documented how educational failure connects to incarceration outcomes. His research on racial disparities in the criminal justice system includes analysis of how educational attainment (or lack thereof) serves as a predictor of justice involvement. Mauer’s longitudinal perspective helps contextualize the pipeline within broader trends in criminal justice policy over the past several decades.
29. Zakiya Sankara-Jabar (b. 1982)
After her own child experienced harsh discipline in preschool, Sankara-Jabar founded Racial Justice NOW! to organize parents against discriminatory school discipline policies. She later co-founded the National Black Women’s Justice Institute with Monique Morris. Sankara-Jabar’s activism exemplifies how parents directly affected by the pipeline can become powerful advocates for systemic change. Her work connects theory to lived experience and centers the voices of families most impacted by punitive policies.
30. Harold Jordan (b. 1955)
As the Nationwide Education Reform coordinator for the American Civil Liberties Union, Jordan has documented the expansion of police presence in schools and its relationship to increased student arrests. His reports on school policing have provided crucial data for understanding how law enforcement in educational settings contributes to the pipeline. Jordan’s advocacy emphasizes the need for clear limitations on school police and protection of students’ civil liberties.
Educators and Practitioners Implementing Alternatives
31. Carla Shalaby (b. 1978)
An educator and researcher, Shalaby’s book “Troublemakers: Lessons in Freedom from Young Children at School” (2017) reframes “disruptive” student behavior as expressions of legitimate resistance to oppressive educational practices. Her work encourages teachers to respond to challenging behavior with curiosity and care rather than punishment. Shalaby’s approach offers concrete alternatives to disciplinary practices that feed the pipeline.
32. Howard Zehr (b. 1944)
Often called the “grandfather of restorative justice,” Zehr’s work has been foundational to developing alternatives to punitive discipline in schools. His books, including “Changing Lenses” (1990), provide both philosophical frameworks and practical approaches for addressing harm through healing rather than punishment. Zehr’s restorative model has been adopted by numerous school districts seeking to reduce suspensions and exclusionary discipline.
33. Rita Pierson (1951-2013)
A celebrated educator with over 40 years of experience, Pierson’s philosophy that “every kid needs a champion” challenged the impersonal, compliance-focused approaches that often characterize schools feeding the pipeline. Her famous TED Talk emphasized the importance of human connection in education, particularly for struggling students. Pierson’s legacy continues to inspire educators to prioritize relationships over rules and to see potential in every student.
34. Tom Roderick (1942-2018)
As Executive Director of Morningside Center for Teaching Social Responsibility, Roderick pioneered social and emotional learning programs in New York City public schools. Programs like “Resolving Conflict Creatively” provided alternatives to zero-tolerance discipline by teaching students skills for managing emotions and conflicts. Roderick’s work demonstrated that schools could maintain safety and order without resorting to punitive measures that push students out.
35. Russell Eckert (b. 1961)
As principal of Augustus Hawkins High School in Los Angeles, Eckert implemented one of the nation’s most successful school-wide restorative justice programs, dramatically reducing suspensions and police involvement while improving academic outcomes. His leadership demonstrates how administrative commitment to alternative approaches can transform school culture. Eckert’s work provides a replicable model for schools serving communities heavily impacted by the pipeline.
36. Linda Darling-Hammond (b. 1951)
An influential education researcher and policy advisor, Darling-Hammond has consistently advocated for equitable school funding, teacher preparation focused on diverse learners, and supportive rather than punitive approaches to student behavior. Her comprehensive vision of education reform addresses the root causes of the pipeline. Darling-Hammond’s work with the Learning Policy Institute provides evidence-based alternatives to exclusionary discipline.
37. Jeff Duncan-Andrade (b. 1971)
An educator and scholar focused on urban education, Duncan-Andrade’s concept of “critical hope” offers an alternative to punitive approaches for students experiencing trauma and structural violence. His work in Oakland schools demonstrates how educators can maintain high expectations while acknowledging the real challenges faced by marginalized youth. Duncan-Andrade’s approach emphasizes the healing potential of education rather than its disciplinary function.
38. Karen Loeser (b. 1962)
As founding principal of the Oakland Unified School District’s Restorative Justice program, Loeser helped develop one of the nation’s most comprehensive district-wide alternatives to punitive discipline. Under her leadership, Oakland saw significant reductions in suspensions, particularly for Black students. Loeser’s implementation strategy emphasized building capacity among teachers and administrators rather than simply changing policies on paper.
39. Anne Gregory (b. 1974)
A research psychologist focused on school discipline, Gregory has conducted influential studies on how teacher-student relationships affect disciplinary outcomes. Her work on “authoritative” rather than authoritarian classroom management provides teachers with concrete strategies for maintaining order without resorting to exclusionary discipline. Gregory’s research connects discipline disparities to broader questions of educational equity and teacher effectiveness.
40. Eric Butler (b. 1963)
A restorative justice coordinator in Oakland schools featured in the documentary “Circles,” Butler has worked directly with students at highest risk for entering the prison system. His personal experience with incarceration informs his approach to mentoring youth and implementing alternatives to suspension and expulsion. Butler’s work exemplifies how formerly incarcerated individuals can become powerful agents of prevention in educational settings.
Youth Advocates and Directly Impacted Leaders
41. Xavier McElrath-Bey (b. 1975)
Sentenced to 25 years in prison at age 13, McElrath-Bey now serves as Senior Advisor and National Advocate at the Campaign for Fair Sentencing of Youth. His firsthand experience of how school failure led to gang involvement and eventually incarceration informs his powerful advocacy. McElrath-Bey’s testimony before legislators and policy makers puts a human face on the consequences of the school-to-prison pipeline.
42. Reginald Dwayne Betts (b. 1980)
A poet, lawyer, and advocate who was incarcerated as a teenager, Betts founded Freedom Reads to bring literature to incarcerated people. His memoir “A Question of Freedom” chronicles his journey from honor student to prison and back to Yale Law School. Betts’ story illustrates both the reality of the pipeline and the possibility of different outcomes when educational opportunities are provided even after incarceration.
43. Lateefah Simon (b. 1977)
A MacArthur “Genius Grant” recipient, Simon became an advocate for incarcerated girls as a teenager herself. As founder of the Center for Young Women’s Development (now Young Women’s Freedom Center), she developed peer-led programs for girls involved in juvenile justice systems. Simon’s approach emphasizes the leadership potential of directly impacted youth rather than treating them as problems to be solved.
44. Xiomara Torres (b. 1982)
Now a judge in Oregon, Torres entered foster care after immigrating from El Salvador and experienced the intersections of child welfare, education, and juvenile justice systems. Her judicial approach emphasizes understanding the context of youth behavior rather than simply punishing infractions. Torres’ career demonstrates how individuals with direct system experience can transform institutions from within.
45. DeRay Mckesson (b. 1985)
A prominent activist who previously worked as a school administrator in Baltimore and Minneapolis, Mckesson has connected his educational experience to his advocacy against police violence. His platform has highlighted how school discipline practices mirror and feed into broader systems of racial control. Mckesson’s use of social media has brought pipeline issues to younger audiences and connected them to broader movements for racial justice.
46. Liz Ryan (b. 1963)
As founder of the Youth First Initiative and president of Youth First, Ryan has led campaigns to close youth prisons and reinvest resources in community-based alternatives. Her work addresses the endpoint of the pipeline by challenging the existence of youth incarceration itself. Ryan’s advocacy emphasizes that meaningful reform requires not just changing school discipline but reimagining juvenile justice entirely.
47. Diane Latiker (b. 1957)
After noticing youth in her Chicago neighborhood had nowhere safe to gather, Latiker founded Kids Off the Block in 2003, opening her home to young people at risk of violence and incarceration. Her community-based approach addresses the lack of supportive spaces that often contributes to school disengagement and justice involvement. Latiker’s work demonstrates how community members can create vital alternatives to both the streets and the juvenile justice system.
48. Johnny Perez (b. 1983)
Having spent 13 years incarcerated, including time in solitary confinement that began as a juvenile, Perez now serves as Director of the U.S. Prisons Program at the National Religious Campaign Against Torture. His advocacy focuses on the most extreme consequences of the pipeline, including the placement of youth in adult facilities. Perez’s testimony about his educational experiences before and during incarceration highlights systemic failures at multiple levels.
49. Hernan Carvente-Martinez (b. 1992)
Incarcerated as a teenager, Carvente-Martinez founded Project Healing Generations to support youth affected by the justice system. His work with the Youth First Initiative has helped center the voices of directly impacted youth in policy discussions about juvenile justice reform. Carvente-Martinez’s approach emphasizes the expertise that comes from lived experience and the importance of trauma-informed approaches to both education and rehabilitation.
50. George Galvis (b. 1977)
Drawing on his own experience with the juvenile justice system, Galvis co-founded Communities United for Restorative Youth Justice (CURYJ) in Oakland. The organization works at the intersection of education, juvenile justice, and immigration systems to support youth affected by multiple forms of system involvement. Galvis’s culturally rooted approach incorporates indigenous healing practices as alternatives to both school discipline and incarceration.
Judicial Figures and Legal Advocates
51. Thurgood Marshall (1908-1993)
Before becoming the first Black Supreme Court Justice, Marshall’s work as an NAACP attorney challenging school segregation laid important groundwork for understanding education as a civil right. His legacy informs contemporary legal challenges to disciplinary practices that disproportionately exclude students of color from educational opportunities. Marshall’s opinions on the Court consistently defended students’ due process rights in disciplinary proceedings.
52. Jay Blitzman (b. 1950)
As a juvenile court judge in Massachusetts, Blitzman coined the term “school-based arrests” and developed protocols to reduce unnecessary court referrals from schools. His judicial approach emphasized returning disciplinary issues to educational settings whenever possible. Blitzman’s advocacy from the bench demonstrated how judges can serve as circuit-breakers in the pipeline rather than simply processing the youth referred to them.
53. Michael Corriero (b. 1942)
A former New York State judge who presided over a special court for juvenile offenders, Corriero founded the New York Center for Juvenile Justice to promote alternatives to adult prosecution of youth. His judicial philosophy emphasized rehabilitation over punishment, particularly for youth whose offenses connected to educational failures. Corriero’s book “Judging Children as Children” argues for developmentally appropriate approaches to youth misconduct in both schools and courts.
54. Steven Teske (b. 1962)
As Chief Judge of the Juvenile Court of Clayton County, Georgia, Teske implemented a school-justice partnership that dramatically reduced school-based arrests and referrals to juvenile court. His collaborative approach brought together educators, law enforcement, mental health providers, and juvenile justice officials to develop alternatives to criminalization. Teske’s model has been replicated in jurisdictions across the country.
55. Nancy Gertner (b. 1946)
A former federal judge and current Harvard Law professor, Gertner has been an outspoken critic of how educational failures feed mass incarceration. Her scholarly work and public advocacy highlight the role of the judiciary in either perpetuating or disrupting the pipeline. Gertner’s perspective combines practical judicial experience with academic analysis of systemic inequities.
56. Judges in J.D.B. v. North Carolina (2011)
The Supreme Court justices who ruled in this case established that age must be considered when determining whether a student is “in custody” for Miranda purposes, recognizing that school-based interrogations can be particularly coercive for young people. This decision created an important legal safeguard against pipeline-feeding practices by limiting unprotected questioning of students by school police. The majority opinion recognized the developmental differences between youth and adults in legal contexts.
57. Kimberly Guilfoyle Newsom (b. 1969)
As San Francisco’s Assistant District Attorney in charge of the juvenile division in the early 2000s, Guilfoyle Newsom implemented diversion programs that kept many youth out of formal court processing. Her approach emphasized intervention and support rather than punishment, particularly for first-time offenders. While her later political career took different directions, her early work demonstrated how prosecutors can reduce rather than accelerate pipeline effects.
58. Christina Swarns (b. 1968)
As Litigation Director for the NAACP Legal Defense Fund and later Executive Director of the Innocence Project, Swarns has challenged both educational and criminal justice policies that disproportionately impact youth of color. Her legal advocacy addresses multiple points in the pipeline, from school discipline to juvenile sentencing. Swarns’s intersectional approach recognizes how various forms of discrimination compound to create pipeline effects.
59. James Bell (b. 1954)
Founder of the W. Haywood Burns Institute, Bell has developed data-driven approaches to reducing racial disparities in juvenile justice systems. His work with jurisdictions across the country identifies specific decision points where youth of color are treated more harshly than white youth. Bell’s collaborative approach brings together judges, probation officers, educators, and community members to develop localized solutions to pipeline issues.
60. Theo Shaw (b. 1988)
One of the “Jena Six” students charged with attempted murder after a school fight in Louisiana, Shaw later became an attorney with the Southern Poverty Law Center, representing youth in juvenile justice and education systems. His personal experience with the pipeline informs his legal advocacy. Shaw’s journey from defendant to lawyer illustrates both the harms of the pipeline and the potential for transformed outcomes.
Researchers and Scholars Examining Disparities
61. Prudence Carter (b. 1969)
A sociologist whose research examines how cultural mismatches between students and schools contribute to disciplinary disparities, Carter’s book “Keepin’ It Real: School Success Beyond Black and White” challenges deficit perspectives on students of color. Her work on cultural capital helps explain why certain student behaviors are criminalized while others are tolerated. Carter’s research provides a framework for understanding the cultural dimensions of the pipeline.
62. Gloria Ladson-Billings (b. 1947)
An education theorist whose concept of “culturally relevant pedagogy” offers an alternative to the alienating educational practices that often precede pipeline entry, Ladson-Billings has consistently advocated for approaches that affirm rather than criminalize student identity. Her framework of “education debt” reframes achievement gaps as the accumulated result of historical inequities. Ladson-Billings’s work addresses the educational conditions that make the pipeline possible.
63. Shaun Harper (b. 1975)
As founder of the Race and Equity Center at the University of Southern California, Harper has conducted extensive research on how racial stereotypes affect perceptions of student behavior, particularly for Black boys. His studies demonstrate how implicit bias influences disciplinary decisions in both K-12 and higher education settings. Harper’s methodologically rigorous approach provides empirical evidence for how racial dynamics shape pipeline processes.
64. Vanessa Siddle Walker (b. 1958)
A historian of education whose work documents the caring and culturally responsive approaches of Black educators before integration, Walker’s research suggests alternative models to current disciplinary practices. Her book “Their Highest Potential” describes educational environments that successfully supported Black students through relationship-building rather than punishment. Walker’s historical perspective offers valuable lessons for contemporary pipeline interventions.
65. Maisha T. Winn (b. 1974)
An education researcher focused on literacy, incarceration, and restorative justice, Winn’s concept of “justice-centered teaching” provides a framework for educational approaches that interrupt rather than reinforce the pipeline. Her research on writing programs in juvenile facilities demonstrates how meaningful education can be provided even after pipeline involvement. Winn’s work bridges theory and practice through direct engagement with incarcerated youth.
66. Dorothy Roberts (b. 1956)
A legal scholar and sociologist whose work examines the intersections of race, gender, and institutional systems, Roberts has documented how child welfare, education, and juvenile justice systems often work in tandem to control marginalized communities. Her book “Shattered Bonds” analyzes the “child welfare to juvenile justice pipeline” that disproportionately affects Black families. Roberts’s intersectional analysis reveals how multiple systems create cumulative disadvantage.
67. Tyrone Howard (b. 1969)
An education researcher focused on race, culture, and the experiences of Black students, Howard’s work examines how trauma affects student behavior and how schools often respond punitively rather than supportively to trauma manifestations. His concept of “racial trauma” helps explain behavioral responses that schools frequently misinterpret as defiance. Howard’s research advocates for trauma-informed approaches as alternatives to exclusionary discipline.
68. Ann Arnett Ferguson (b. 1951)
Ferguson’s ethnographic study “Bad Boys: Public Schools in the Making of Black Masculinity” provided one of the earliest and most detailed accounts of how schools criminalize Black boys through everyday practices. Her concept of “adultification” helps explain why Black children are often denied the presumption of childhood innocence. Ferguson’s close observation of school interactions revealed the subtle but powerful ways that pipeline processes operate in daily school life.
69. Kahlil Gibran Muhammad (b. 1972)
A historian whose work examines the construction of Black criminality in American culture, Muhammad’s book “The Condemnation of Blackness” provides historical context for contemporary criminalization of Black youth in educational settings. His analysis of how statistics have been used to justify racial control connects to current uses of discipline data. Muhammad’s historical perspective reveals the deep roots of pipeline-feeding ideologies.
70. Nikki Jones (b. 1975)
An ethnographer whose research examines how Black youth navigate environments where they are perceived as threatening, Jones’s book “Between Good and Ghetto” documents the complex decisions young people make in schools and neighborhoods where they face both interpersonal and institutional violence. Her work reveals how safety concerns that schools fail to address often lead to behaviors that result in exclusionary discipline. Jones’s research centers youth perspectives and agency within constrained options.
Policy Reformers and System Leaders
71. Arne Duncan (b. 1964)
As U.S. Secretary of Education from 2009 to 2015, Duncan issued guidance aimed at reducing racial disparities in school discipline and limiting exclusionary practices. His “Rethink Discipline” initiative represented a significant federal effort to address pipeline issues, though results were mixed. Duncan’s efforts demonstrate both the potential and limitations of federal policy in addressing deeply entrenched local practices.
72. Catherine Lhamon (b. 1971)
As Assistant Secretary for Civil Rights in the U.S. Department of Education during the Obama administration, Lhamon issued guidance on school discipline that established exclusionary practices with disparate racial impacts as potential civil rights violations. This guidance significantly expanded federal oversight of discipline policies. Lhamon’s approach used civil rights law as a lever for reducing pipeline-feeding practices.
73. John King Jr. (b. 1975)
As New York State Education Commissioner and later U.S. Secretary of Education, King advocated for replacing zero-tolerance approaches with restorative practices. His personal experience in urban schools and as a student who lost both parents young informed his perspective on supporting vulnerable students. King’s leadership demonstrated how education officials can prioritize keeping students in school rather than pushing them out.
74. Tony Smith (b. 1967)
As superintendent of schools in Oakland, California, Smith implemented one of the country’s most comprehensive restorative justice initiatives, dramatically reducing suspensions and expulsions. His “African American Male Achievement Initiative” specifically addressed the population most affected by the pipeline. Smith’s approach recognized the need for targeted interventions focused on the students most at risk of pipeline entry.
75. Harry Shorstein (b. 1941)
As State Attorney for Florida’s Fourth Judicial Circuit, Shorstein developed a juvenile justice model that diverted first-time offenders from court processing and provided educational support rather than punishment. His approach demonstrated how prosecutors can serve as gatekeepers preventing pipeline progression. Shorstein’s program showed significant reductions in recidivism compared to traditional processing.
76. Michael Nutter (b. 1957)
As Mayor of Philadelphia from 2008 to 2016, Nutter supported reforms to both school discipline and juvenile justice systems, including revising the school district’s zero-tolerance policy and implementing diversion programs. His administration’s integrated approach addressed multiple points in the pipeline simultaneously. Nutter’s reforms demonstrated the importance of alignment between educational and juvenile justice policies at the local level.
77. Vincent Schiraldi (b. 1959)
As Commissioner of New York City’s Department of Probation and later Director of the District of Columbia Department of Youth Rehabilitation Services, Schiraldi implemented reforms that dramatically reduced youth incarceration and expanded community-based alternatives. His approach emphasized keeping young people connected to education rather than removed from it. Schiraldi’s leadership demonstrated how juvenile justice systems can be reoriented toward developmental approaches rather than punitive ones.
78. Susan Kaeser (b. 1947)
As a co-founder of the Cleveland Heights-University Heights School District’s Student Rights Project, Kaeser developed systematic approaches to monitoring and addressing discipline disparities at the local level. Her community-based advocacy created models for how parent groups can effectively challenge pipeline-feeding practices. Kaeser’s work demonstrates the importance of sustained local monitoring of discipline data and practices.
79. Antoinette Kavanaugh (b. 1965)
A forensic psychologist specializing in juvenile cases, Kavanaugh has trained judges, attorneys, and educators on adolescent development and its implications for both school discipline and legal proceedings. Her expert testimony has helped courts understand the developmental contexts of youth behavior. Kavanaugh’s work bridges psychological research and practical application in legal and educational settings.
80. Jesse Williams (b. 1981)
Beyond his acting career, Williams has become a prominent advocate for educational equity and against the school-to-prison pipeline. His documentary “Question Bridge: Black Males” explores issues of identity that connect to how Black boys are perceived and treated in educational settings. Williams’s platform has brought pipeline issues to mainstream attention and connected them to broader conversations about racial justice.
81. Salvatore Interlandi (b. 1977)
A documentarian whose film “The Lottery of Birth” examines how zip codes determine educational opportunities and discipline approaches, Interlandi’s work visualizes the geographic disparities in pipeline risk. His use of data visualization makes complex statistical patterns accessible to general audiences. Interlandi’s approach combines human stories with systemic analysis, helping viewers understand both individual experiences and broader structural issues affecting educational equity.
82. Nikole Hannah-Jones (b. 1976)
A Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist whose reporting on school segregation has illuminated how concentrated disadvantage creates conditions for the pipeline to flourish, Hannah-Jones connects historical educational inequities to contemporary disciplinary disparities. Her work on “The Problem We All Live With” for This American Life and her leadership on The 1619 Project contextualize pipeline issues within America’s longer history of racial hierarchy. Hannah-Jones’s journalism challenges ahistorical approaches to understanding educational disparities.
83. Kelly Lytle Hernández (b. 1974)
A historian whose research examines the interconnected histories of incarceration, immigration enforcement, and educational control in the American West, Lytle Hernández’s book “City of Inmates” provides crucial historical context for understanding the criminalization of youth of color. Her concept of “elimination through education” reveals how schools have long served as sites of racial control. Lytle Hernández’s historical analyses reveal the deep roots of contemporary pipeline mechanisms.
84. Eve L. Ewing (b. 1986)
A sociologist, poet, and former Chicago Public Schools teacher, Ewing’s book “Ghosts in the Schoolyard” examines school closures in Black communities and their relationship to disciplinary practices and student displacement. Her multidisciplinary approach combines data analysis with community narratives. Ewing’s work demonstrates how policy decisions that appear race-neutral often have racially disparate impacts that contribute to pipeline dynamics.
85. Valerie Strauss (b. 1957)
Through her Washington Post education blog “The Answer Sheet,” Strauss has consistently covered school discipline issues, zero-tolerance policies, and their disparate impacts. Her platform amplifies research and perspectives that might otherwise remain in academic circles. Strauss’s longstanding focus on these issues has helped maintain public attention on the pipeline even as other education topics cycle through news coverage.
86. Alex Kotlowitz (b. 1955)
A journalist and author whose books, including “There Are No Children Here” and “An American Summer,” document how violence and trauma affect children’s educational experiences and interactions with authority figures. Though not explicitly focused on the pipeline, Kotlowitz’s sensitive portrayal of youth navigating violent environments has deepened understanding of behavioral responses that schools often criminalize. His narrative approach humanizes young people who are often reduced to statistics.
Psychological and Mental Health Perspectives
87. James Garbarino (b. 1947)
A psychologist whose research on childhood trauma and violence has informed understanding of the pipeline, Garbarino’s concept of “socially toxic environments” helps explain how some school settings activate rather than mitigate trauma responses. His book “Lost Boys” examines how juvenile offenders’ developmental pathways often include educational alienation. Garbarino’s work emphasizes prevention through supportive rather than punitive approaches to vulnerable youth.
88. Sandra Bloom (b. 1948)
A psychiatrist who developed the Sanctuary Model, an organizational approach to creating trauma-informed systems, Bloom’s work has been adapted for educational settings to reduce punitive responses to trauma-related behaviors. Her framework emphasizes safety, emotional management, and restoration rather than punishment. Bloom’s approach offers a comprehensive alternative to the exclusionary practices that feed the pipeline.
89. Bruce Perry (b. 1955)
A child psychiatrist whose research on how trauma affects brain development has profound implications for understanding student behavior, Perry’s neurosequential model provides a framework for developmentally informed responses to challenging behavior. His collaborative work with Oprah Winfrey has brought trauma-informed approaches to mainstream attention. Perry’s emphasis on regulation before reasoning challenges punitive approaches that escalate rather than de-escalate stress responses.
90. Shawn Ginwright (b. 1970)
A researcher and advocate focused on healing-centered engagement with youth, Ginwright’s concept of “radical healing” offers an alternative to disciplinary approaches that compound rather than address trauma. His work emphasizes building youth agency and collective action as alternatives to control-oriented educational environments. Ginwright’s approach connects individual healing to broader social change, addressing both personal and systemic dimensions of the pipeline.
91. Monique Morris (b. 1972)
Through her research on the experiences of Black girls in education and juvenile justice systems, Morris has documented how dress code enforcement, responses to perceived attitude, and sexual harassment all contribute to pushing girls of color out of educational opportunities. Her book “Pushout” and the documentary based on it have brought critical attention to the gendered dimensions of the pipeline. Morris’s intersectional analysis reveals how race and gender interact in pipeline processes.
92. Margaret Beale Spencer (b. 1947)
A developmental psychologist whose PVEST (Phenomenological Variant of Ecological Systems Theory) framework helps explain how stereotype threat and identity development affect student-teacher interactions, Spencer’s research provides crucial context for understanding disciplinary disparities. Her work demonstrates how perceptions of student behavior are filtered through racial stereotypes. Spencer’s developmental perspective highlights how supportive environments can promote resilience rather than criminalization.
93. Nancy Rappaport (b. 1959)
A child psychiatrist specializing in disruptive behaviors in educational settings, Rappaport’s book “The Behavior Code” offers educators specific strategies for responding effectively to challenging behaviors without resorting to exclusionary discipline. Her collaborative approach brings together mental health and educational perspectives. Rappaport’s work bridges the gap between clinical understanding of behavior and practical classroom application.
94. Geoffrey Canada (b. 1952)
Through the Harlem Children’s Zone, Canada has implemented a comprehensive approach to breaking the school-to-prison pipeline by addressing children’s needs from “cradle to college.” His holistic model includes high-quality education, family support, and community development. Canada’s work demonstrates the effectiveness of preventative approaches and the importance of addressing multiple risk factors simultaneously rather than focusing narrowly on discipline.
95. Howard Stevenson (b. 1961)
A clinical psychologist whose research focuses on racial stress and coping, Stevenson has developed interventions to help educators recognize and address racial dynamics in disciplinary interactions. His Racial Literacy framework provides practical tools for reducing racially disparate outcomes. Stevenson’s work addresses the psychological processes that contribute to pipeline disparities and offers evidence-based approaches for interrupting them.
96. The Students of Parkland, Chicago, and Beyond
The final position recognizes the young activists from schools affected by both mass shootings and everyday gun violence who have advocated for school safety approaches that do not rely on increased policing and surveillance. Their perspective—that safety comes through mental health support, community investment, and addressing root causes rather than criminalization—represents an important counternarrative to security-focused responses that strengthen the pipeline. Their youth-led movement demonstrates how those most affected by school safety policies can become powerful advocates for approaches that protect without criminalizing.
Conclusion
The school-to-prison pipeline did not emerge overnight, nor was it the creation of any single individual. Rather, it developed through the complex interaction of policies, practices, ideologies, and institutional structures over decades. The influential figures highlighted in this list represent diverse perspectives on this phenomenon—from those whose policies inadvertently strengthened the pipeline to those who have dedicated their careers to dismantling it.
What becomes clear through examining these varied contributions is that addressing the pipeline requires multifaceted approaches that extend beyond simple policy fixes. It demands rethinking fundamental assumptions about discipline, safety, child development, and the purpose of education itself. It requires confronting deep-seated racial biases that affect how student behavior is perceived and addressed. And it necessitates creating alternatives that support rather than exclude struggling students.
The work of these influential figures also reveals how the pipeline connects to broader systems of inequality in American society. Educational disparities cannot be separated from housing segregation, economic inequality, criminal justice policies, and historical patterns of racial control. Meaningful reform therefore requires coordinated efforts across multiple domains.
As we look to the future, the most promising approaches build on the insights of researchers who have documented the pipeline’s mechanisms, the wisdom of directly impacted youth and families who understand its consequences, and the practical innovations of educators and advocates who have demonstrated that alternative approaches are possible. By learning from the full spectrum of individuals who have influenced our understanding of the school-to-prison pipeline, we can work toward educational systems that nurture and support all students rather than channeling some toward incarceration.
