Introduction
In the complex ecosystem of a classroom, time is perhaps the most precious resource. Research consistently shows that instructional time has a direct correlation with student achievement, yet studies indicate that up to 15% of classroom time is lost to transitions between activities. These transitional periods—moving from one subject to another, shifting from desks to group work, changing classrooms, or simply putting away one set of materials to take out another—represent both a challenge and an opportunity for educators. When managed ineffectively, transitions can devolve into chaotic disruptions that fragment learning and diminish classroom focus. Conversely, when skillfully orchestrated, they can become seamless connective tissue between learning experiences, reinforcing classroom community and preserving valuable instructional minutes.
The significance of effective transitions extends beyond mere time management. Transitions represent microcosms of the classroom’s broader culture and expectations. They reflect a teacher’s organizational philosophy and students’ understanding of behavioral norms. For many students, particularly those with attention difficulties, executive functioning challenges, or anxiety, transitions can be especially problematic without proper scaffolding and support. Furthermore, in today’s educational landscape where teachers face increasing pressure to cover extensive curriculum requirements within limited timeframes, the ability to execute efficient transitions has become more crucial than ever.
This comprehensive exploration of classroom transitions examines the multifaceted nature of these pivotal moments in the school day. We will investigate the research-based principles that underpin successful transitions, explore diverse strategies across grade levels and contexts, address common challenges, and provide practical frameworks for implementation. From physical classroom arrangement to technological integration, from individualized supports to whole-class routines, this article aims to equip educators with a robust toolkit for transforming potentially disruptive transitions into opportunities for maximizing learning time and fostering student independence.
Understanding the Impact of Transitions on Learning
The Hidden Cost of Inefficient Transitions
Research by educational time management experts suggests that the average elementary school teacher may conduct 20-30 transitions daily, while secondary teachers might oversee 5-10 per class period across multiple sections. When each transition consumes just 3-5 additional minutes beyond what’s necessary, the cumulative loss of instructional time becomes staggering—potentially amounting to 2-3 weeks of teaching time over an academic year. This statistic alone underscores the critical importance of transition efficiency.
Beyond the quantitative time loss, inefficient transitions exact qualitative costs as well. The cognitive impact of disorganized transitions manifests in several ways. First, they create what psychologists call “attention residue,” where students’ focus remains partially tethered to the previous activity rather than fully engaging with new content. Second, chaotic transitions elevate classroom stress levels, triggering stress responses in both students and teachers that inhibit optimal cognitive functioning. Third, the momentum of learning experiences becomes fragmented, diminishing the coherence of curriculum delivery and concept development.
The behavioral dimension of poor transitions further compounds these challenges. Transitions often represent “boundary moments” where classroom expectations may seem temporarily suspended, creating opportunities for disruptive behavior to emerge. Without clear structures, students may use transitions to engage in off-task socialization, power struggles, or avoidance behaviors. For teachers, consistently problematic transitions can contribute to frustration, exhaustion, and even burnout as they repeatedly expend energy redirecting student behavior rather than facilitating learning.
Transitions as Learning Opportunities
While acknowledging the challenges transitions present, progressive educational approaches increasingly recognize these moments as valuable learning opportunities in themselves. Transitions can serve as natural contexts for developing numerous crucial skills:
Executive Functioning Skills: Transitions require planning, organizing materials, following multi-step procedures, and self-monitoring—all core executive functions that students need to develop.
Social Skills: Collaborative transitions provide authentic opportunities to practice cooperation, spatial awareness, and consideration of others’ needs.
Independence and Agency: Well-designed transition routines gradually transfer responsibility to students, fostering autonomy and self-direction.
Metacognitive Awareness: Reflecting on transition effectiveness helps students develop awareness of their own learning processes and environmental needs.
Adaptability: Regular, varied transitions build students’ capacity to shift between different cognitive modes, physical arrangements, and social configurations—a crucial life skill.
When viewed through this lens, transitions transcend their reputation as mere logistical necessities and emerge as integral components of the educational experience. Effective teachers leverage transitions not just to preserve instructional minutes but to enhance the learning process itself.
The Science Behind Successful Transitions
Cognitive and Neurological Considerations
Contemporary neuroscience offers valuable insights into why transitions can be challenging and how they can be optimized. The brain’s executive function network, primarily located in the prefrontal cortex, orchestrates the cognitive shifts required during transitions. This network manages attention allocation, working memory, cognitive flexibility, and inhibitory control—all heavily taxed during transitional periods.
Research in cognitive load theory suggests that transitions create what psychologists term “extraneous cognitive load,” which consumes mental resources that would otherwise be available for learning. By establishing consistent transitional routines, teachers can reduce this cognitive burden, allowing students to reserve their mental capacity for academic content rather than figuring out procedural expectations.
Neurologically, predictable transitions also support the brain’s preference for patterns and expectations. When transitions follow consistent formats, the brain creates stronger neural pathways for these routines, eventually allowing them to become automatic rather than requiring conscious processing. This automaticity is particularly important for students with attention difficulties or executive functioning challenges, for whom every novel situation demands disproportionate cognitive resources.
Behavioral Psychology Principles
Several well-established behavioral principles inform effective transition management:
Antecedent Interventions: Proactive strategies that precede transitions, such as visual schedules, timers, and advance warnings, modify the environment to promote desired behaviors.
Positive Reinforcement: Acknowledging successful transitions strengthens the likelihood of continued efficient performance.
Clear Response Prompting: Explicit cues (verbal, visual, or auditory) that signal transition expectations reduce ambiguity and increase compliance.
Momentum Building: The behavioral principle of “behavioral momentum” suggests that beginning with high-probability compliance activities before transitions increases the likelihood of cooperation with the transition itself.
Group Contingencies: Collaborative rewards for successful whole-class transitions leverage peer influence positively.
When these principles are systematically applied to transition design, they create what behavioral scientists call “stimulus control,” where the transitional cues themselves begin to elicit the desired behaviors automatically.
Developmental Appropriateness
Effective transitions must align with students’ developmental capabilities. Young children (PreK-2) typically require more concrete supports, shorter transition timeframes, and greater adult guidance due to their developing executive functions and shorter attention spans. Physical movement often aids their transitions, as does the use of songs, rhythmic chants, or visual demonstrations.
Middle-grade students (3-5) can handle increasingly complex transitional instructions and greater autonomy, though they still benefit from clear visual supports and consistent routines. At this age, peer dynamics become more prominent during transitions, necessitating thoughtful management of social interactions.
Adolescents (6-12) possess more developed executive functions but navigate transitions amid heightened social awareness and identity development. Their transitions benefit from logical explanations of procedures, opportunities for appropriate social interaction, and recognition of their need for autonomy. Secondary students also contend with unique challenges like navigating building-wide transitions between classes under tight timeframes.
Understanding these developmental variations prevents the frustration of expecting transitional behaviors beyond students’ capabilities while also avoiding the disengagement that results from procedures perceived as too juvenile.
Essential Components of Effective Transition Systems
Establishing Clear Expectations and Procedures
The foundation of smooth transitions lies in crystal-clear expectations. Effective teachers articulate precisely:
Signal Recognition: How students will know a transition is beginning (visual cues, verbal phrases, musical signals)
Voice Level Parameters: Appropriate volume levels during different transition types
Movement Patterns: Specific pathways, sequencing, or grouping for physical movement
Material Management: Explicit procedures for handling supplies, technology, or equipment
Time Expectations: Clear timeframes for completing transitional tasks
Completion Indicators: How students demonstrate transition readiness and how they should begin the next activity
These expectations benefit from explicit teaching through modeling, guided practice, and independent rehearsal—not merely verbal explanation. Notably, research indicates that investing time in thoroughly teaching transition procedures during the first weeks of school yields substantial time savings throughout the academic year.
For example, rather than simply directing students to “line up for lunch,” a comprehensive procedure might specify: “When you hear the wind chime, finish your sentence, place materials in the right corner of your desk, push in your chair, and walk to your line number using zero voices. Stand facing forward with hands at sides, ready to move when all spots are filled.”
Physical Environment Design
The physical arrangement of the classroom significantly impacts transition efficiency. Strategic design considerations include:
Traffic Flow Planning: Arranging furniture to create clear pathways without bottlenecks
Material Accessibility: Positioning supplies within easy reach to minimize movement
Visual Boundary Markers: Using floor tape, rugs, or other visual cues to delineate activity spaces
Transition Stations: Designating specific areas for material collection or submission
Personal Space Considerations: Ensuring adequate spacing between student work areas to prevent congestion
Visual Support Placement: Posting procedure reminders at eye level in relevant locations
Environmental audits—observing student movement patterns during typical transitions and identifying congestion points—provide valuable data for arrangement refinements. Some teachers find value in creating classroom maps that explicitly diagram movement flows for common transitions, particularly for younger students or those with spatial awareness challenges.
Temporal Frameworks and Pacing
Time management forms another crucial dimension of transition systems:
Consistent Timing: Scheduling transitions at predictable intervals when possible
Appropriate Duration Allocation: Allowing realistic timeframes based on task complexity and student needs
Visual Timers: Providing concrete representations of time passage (digital countdown displays, sand timers, analog clocks with highlighted sections)
Incremental Warnings: Giving advance notice at strategic intervals (5 minutes, 2 minutes, 30 seconds)
Efficiency Incentives: Occasionally challenging students to complete smooth transitions within target timeframes
Research suggests that transitions exceeding 5-7 minutes generally indicate procedural inefficiencies that warrant examination. However, transitions should never be rushed to the point that they generate anxiety or prevent proper material organization, as this ultimately creates more problems than it solves.
Communication Systems
Effective transitions rely on clear communication mechanisms:
Attention Signals: Establishing universal cues that reliably capture student attention
Transitional Instructions: Delivering directions in appropriate sequence, complexity, and modality
Progress Monitoring: Communicating feedback during transitions about pacing and quality
Peer Communication Protocols: Establishing when and how students may communicate during transitions
Non-verbal Cuing Systems: Developing hand signals or visual cards for common transitional messages
Notably, research indicates that multi-sensory signals (combining visual and auditory cues) prove most effective at capturing attention across diverse learning preferences. Similarly, instructions delivered before movement begins rather than during transitions typically result in higher compliance rates and fewer repetitions.
Strategies for Different Transition Types
Within-Activity Transitions
These smaller transitions occur within a single lesson or subject area, such as moving from teacher demonstration to independent practice. Effective strategies include:
Bridging Statements: Verbal cues that explicitly connect components (“Now that we’ve analyzed this example together, you’ll apply the same process independently”)
Material Staging: Preparing materials in advance for seamless progression between activities
Visual Roadmaps: Displaying lesson segments so students anticipate upcoming shifts
Role Rotation Systems: Established procedures for changing roles within cooperative groups
Checkpoint Routines: Brief assessment moments that confirm readiness before proceeding
These micro-transitions benefit from consistent language that signals cognitive shifts. For example, phrases like “moving from exploration to explanation” or “shifting from input to application” help students recalibrate their thinking appropriately.
Between-Activity Transitions
These more substantial transitions involve changing subjects or moving to entirely different activities. Effective approaches include:
Closure Routines: Brief reflection or summarization before transitioning to consolidate learning
Thematic Bridges: Highlighting connections between ending and upcoming activities
Material Exchange Systems: Efficient procedures for putting away and distributing new materials
Configuration Shifts: Clear protocols for rearranging furniture or student groupings
Brain Breaks: Strategic movement or mindfulness activities that refresh attention between subjects
Notably, research suggests that brief content-relevant movement incorporated into these transitions (such as physically acting out vocabulary from the concluding lesson while moving to the next activity) can both reinforce learning and provide needed physical activation.
Arrival and Dismissal Transitions
These critical daily transitions set the tone for learning engagement and consolidated closure:
Entry Routines: Established procedures for unpacking, submitting homework, and beginning morning work
Welcome Rituals: Consistent activities that build community while accommodating varied arrival times
End-of-Day Checklists: Systematic procedures for material organization, space restoration, and reflection
Staggered Dismissal Systems: Organized processes for managing movement to transportation
Tomorrow Preview: Brief orientation to upcoming events or needed materials
Research indicates that classrooms with established arrival routines show significantly higher rates of on-task behavior during the first instructional period compared to classrooms without such structures. Similarly, thoughtful dismissal procedures reduce lost items and homework completion issues.
Transitions to Special Contexts
Certain transitions present unique challenges requiring specialized approaches:
Specialist Classes: Procedures for transitioning to different teachers, classrooms, or content areas
Technology Integration: Protocols for accessing, using, and returning digital devices
Emergency Procedures: Clear transitions into safety routines for drills or actual emergencies
Substitute Teacher Days: Modified routines that accommodate different adult leadership
Field Experiences: Systems for off-campus transitions and reorientation upon return
These special transitions benefit from explicit preparation, often including preview discussions, visual supports, and clear connection to familiar classroom norms adapted for new contexts.
Differentiation and Inclusive Transition Practices
Supporting Students with Executive Functioning Challenges
Students with ADHD, autism spectrum disorders, and other conditions affecting executive functioning often find transitions particularly challenging. Supportive strategies include:
Visual Schedules: Pictorial or written sequences showing transition steps
Personalized Timers: Individual time management tools calibrated to specific needs
Transition Objects: Concrete items that provide sensory support or functional assistance
Preview-Review Techniques: Individual check-ins before and after transitions
Environmental Modifications: Strategic positioning to minimize distractions or sensory overload
Task Analysis Breakdowns: Dividing complex transitions into manageable sub-steps
These supports implement the principle of “scaffolded autonomy,” providing sufficient structure to enable success while gradually building independent transitional capabilities.
Addressing Anxiety and Resistance
For students who experience transition-related anxiety or exhibit resistant behaviors, consider:
Emotional Preparation: Affective check-ins and validation before potentially stressful transitions
Graduated Exposure: Systematic desensitization to challenging transition types
Social Stories or Scripts: Narrative preparation for transition procedures and experiences
Choice Integration: Appropriate options within transition frameworks to increase agency
Positive Priming: Emphasizing engaging aspects of upcoming activities
Calming Techniques: Integrated self-regulation strategies during transitional moments
Research indicates that transition resistance often stems from uncertainty, sensory discomfort, or fear of the unknown rather than defiance. Addressing these underlying concerns proves more effective than consequence-based approaches alone.
Cultural Responsiveness in Transition Design
Culturally responsive transition practices recognize that students from diverse backgrounds may experience transitions differently based on cultural norms around:
Time Orientation: Varying cultural perspectives on punctuality, pacing, and time boundaries
Authority Structures: Different expectations regarding adult directives and autonomy
Collaborative vs. Individual Processes: Cultural variations in group versus independent transitions
Communication Styles: Diverse norms for verbal interaction during movement or activities
Physical Proximity Comfort: Cultural differences in personal space and physical boundaries
Effective teachers acknowledge these variations without stereotyping, creating transition systems flexible enough to honor diversity while maintaining necessary classroom structure. They engage in ongoing dialogue with students and families to refine approaches based on actual rather than assumed needs.
Technology and Transitions
Digital Tools for Transition Management
Technology offers numerous supports for streamlining transitions:
Timer Applications: Digital countdown displays with visual and auditory features
Transition Signal Apps: Programs providing consistent attention cues across contexts
Classroom Management Platforms: Systems tracking transition efficiency and providing feedback
Digital Instruction Displays: Centralized screens showing transition directions and progress
Random Selection Tools: Applications for creating fair, efficient groupings or sequences
Noise Level Monitors: Visual feedback systems for maintaining appropriate volume
While these tools can enhance transitions, they should supplement rather than replace fundamental procedures and relationships. Over-reliance on technology can create new transition problems if devices malfunction or become distractions themselves.
Transitions Involving Technology Use
As classrooms increasingly incorporate digital learning, transitions to and from technology require specific considerations:
Device Distribution Systems: Efficient procedures for accessing and returning shared technology
Digital Environment Preparation: Routines for logging in, accessing materials, and setting up workspaces
Screen-to-Face Transitions: Protocols for shifting attention between devices and human interaction
Technical Troubleshooting Procedures: Systems for addressing common technology issues without disrupting the whole class
Digital Work Submission: Clear processes for saving, sharing, or submitting electronic work
Digital Cleanup Routines: Procedures for properly closing programs, logging out, and storing devices
Effective technology transitions often benefit from student leadership roles, with designated tech monitors or experts facilitating smoother processes while developing their own responsibility and problem-solving skills.
Building Student Ownership and Independence
Gradual Release of Responsibility
The ultimate goal of transition systems is student self-regulation rather than perpetual teacher management. This development follows a gradual release framework:
Teacher Modeling Phase: Explicit demonstration of transition expectations and procedures
Guided Practice Phase: Supported implementation with immediate feedback
Prompted Independence Phase: Student execution with minimal teacher cues
Full Autonomy Phase: Self-directed transitions requiring only occasional reinforcement
This progression should be intentionally planned across the academic year, with systematic transfer of responsibility from teacher to students. Documentation of this progression helps maintain focus on independence rather than defaulting to continued teacher direction.
Student Leadership Opportunities
Embedding student leadership within transition systems builds ownership while developing valuable skills:
Transition Monitors: Rotating roles overseeing specific transition components
Peer Coaches: Trained students who support classmates with transition challenges
Procedure Developers: Student involvement in creating and refining transition systems
Efficiency Analysts: Data collection and analysis of transition effectiveness
New Student Orientation Leaders: Peers who introduce transition procedures to classroom newcomers
These leadership opportunities prove particularly valuable for students who themselves find transitions challenging, as teaching others often strengthens their own procedural understanding and commitment.
Metacognitive Reflection
Developing students’ awareness of transition processes enhances both efficiency and skill development:
Transition Success Criteria: Student-friendly rubrics defining smooth transitions
Self-Assessment Opportunities: Regular reflection on personal transition performance
Group Debriefing: Collaborative analysis of successful and challenging transitions
Improvement Planning: Student participation in refining problematic procedures
Transfer Discussions: Conversations about applying transition skills to other contexts
These metacognitive practices transform transitions from teacher-imposed procedures to meaningful self-management opportunities with relevance beyond the classroom.
Addressing Common Transition Challenges
Time Pressure and Curricular Demands
The reality of packed academic schedules often creates tension between thorough transitions and content coverage. Strategies for balancing these competing demands include:
Integrated Content During Transitions: Incorporating review, preview, or practice into transitional moments
Strategic Prioritization: Identifying which transitions most critically require investment
Efficiency Analysis: Regular evaluation of transition procedures to eliminate unnecessary steps
Transition Timing Studies: Data collection on actual versus perceived transition duration
Parallel Processing Techniques: Systems allowing simultaneous completion of multiple transitional tasks
Research consistently demonstrates that time invested in establishing efficient transitions ultimately creates more instructional time than it consumes, though this return on investment may not be immediately apparent.
Diverse Pacing Needs
The reality that students complete transitions at different rates presents an ongoing management challenge. Effective approaches include:
Early Finisher Systems: Meaningful activities for students who complete transitions quickly
Targeted Support Protocols: Efficient assistance for consistently slower transitioning students
Peer Assistance Structures: Appropriate collaboration that helps all students without enabling dependence
Progressive Time Targets: Gradually increasing efficiency expectations as routines become established
Natural Consequences Systems: Logical outcomes that maintain accountability without punitive measures
Importantly, transition speed differences often reflect legitimate variations in processing, organizational abilities, or physical capabilities rather than noncompliance or laziness. Effective teachers distinguish between students who cannot transition efficiently and those who choose not to, providing appropriate differentiation for the former while maintaining clear expectations for the latter.
Maintaining Consistency Amid Changing Schedules
School environments frequently experience schedule disruptions that challenge transition consistency. Strategies for adaptation include:
Universal Transition Principles: Core procedures that apply across schedule variations
Visual Schedule Adjustments: Clear communication of daily changes
Modified Routine Rehearsals: Brief practice of transitions for unusual schedules
Schedule Change Protocols: Established systems for managing interruptions
Reorientation Techniques: Methods for refocusing after unexpected transitions
While consistency remains important, effective transition systems must balance predictability with flexibility to accommodate the dynamic reality of school environments.
Measuring and Improving Transition Effectiveness
Data Collection Approaches
Systematic assessment provides valuable insights for transition refinement:
Time Studies: Measuring duration of different transition types and components
On-Task Analysis: Tracking engagement rates before, during, and after transitions
Disruption Frequency Counts: Documenting specific transition challenges
Student Perception Surveys: Gathering feedback on transition experiences and suggestions
Comparative Implementation: Testing different approaches to similar transitions
These data collection efforts need not be elaborate; simple tallies, occasional video recording, or brief tracking periods can yield valuable insights without overwhelming teacher capacity.
Continuous Improvement Cycles
Effective transition systems evolve through intentional refinement processes:
Regular Procedure Audits: Systematic evaluation of transition efficiency and effectiveness
Targeted Problem-Solving: Focused improvement of specific transitional challenges
Student Involvement: Collaborative analysis and solution development
Incremental Adjustments: Small, manageable changes rather than complete system overhauls
Success Documentation: Recording improvements to sustain motivation and identify effective practices
This improvement process benefits from the “small wins” approach—identifying manageable transition elements for focused attention rather than attempting comprehensive overhauls that may prove overwhelming.
Professional Collaboration
Transition improvement flourishes in collaborative educational communities through:
Peer Observation Exchanges: Structured opportunities to witness others’ transition systems
Shared Resource Development: Collaborative creation of transition supports and materials
Problem-Solving Protocols: Structured processes for addressing persistent transition challenges
Vertical Alignment Discussions: Coordination of transition expectations across grade levels
Research Study Groups: Collective exploration of transition research and application
Such collaboration counters the isolation that often characterizes teaching, providing fresh perspectives on entrenched transition challenges while distributing the workload of resource development.
Transitions Beyond the Classroom
School-Wide Transition Systems
Coordinated approaches to transitions across environments enhance overall school climate:
Common Signal Systems: Consistent attention cues throughout the building
Shared Procedural Language: Aligned terminology for similar expectations
Collaborative Hallway Management: Coordinated supervision of building-wide transitions
Transition Timing Coordination: Staggered schedules to prevent congestion
Universal Support Systems: Consistent approaches for students with transition challenges
These unified approaches provide students with valuable consistency while strengthening the school’s overall learning-focused culture.
Transitions Between Grade Levels and Schools
Major educational transitions require specialized support systems:
Vertical Procedure Alignment: Gradual progression of expectations across grades
Transition Visits: Orientation experiences in new environments
Skill Transfer Discussions: Explicit connections between familiar and new procedures
Graduated Responsibility Shifts: Incremental autonomy increases appropriate to developmental levels
Communication Coordination: Information sharing between sending and receiving teachers
These significant transitions benefit from recognition as major life changes rather than merely logistical shifts, with appropriate attention to both procedural and socio-emotional dimensions.
Family-School Partnership in Transitions
Engaging families strengthens transition success through:
Home-School Consistency: Shared understanding of transition expectations and language
Transition Support Communication: Information about helping children navigate school procedures
Morning/Afternoon Routine Coordination: Aligned approaches to daily transitions between home and school
Cultural Context Exchange: Dialogue about varying transition expectations across environments
Transition Skill Transfer: Discussion of applying school transition skills in other contexts
This partnership recognizes that transition capabilities develop across environments and that alignment between home and school approaches magnifies effectiveness in both contexts.
Conclusion: The Art and Science of Seamless Transitions
Masterful transition management represents both an art and a science—combining research-based principles with the creative responsiveness required in dynamic classroom environments. While the strategies detailed throughout this article provide a comprehensive foundation, their implementation must ultimately be tailored to specific classroom contexts, student needs, and teacher styles. The most effective transition systems evolve continuously, adapting to changing circumstances while maintaining core principles of clarity, consistency, and gradual responsibility release.
Beyond their immediate time-saving benefits, well-crafted transitions contribute to broader educational goals. They develop students’ self-regulation capabilities, enhance classroom community, reduce behavioral challenges, and ultimately create more engaging learning environments. In this sense, transitions transcend their reputation as mere logistical necessities and emerge as integral components of effective pedagogy.
As education continues evolving in response to changing societal needs and technological developments, transition management will likely incorporate new approaches and tools. However, the fundamental principles—clear expectations, appropriate scaffolding, consistent implementation, and student ownership—will remain essential to creating classroom environments where every minute matters and learning flourishes uninterrupted.
By investing thoughtful attention in these seemingly mundane moments between learning activities, educators transform potential disruptions into opportunities for growth and maximize the precious resource of instructional time. In doing so, they create not just more efficient classrooms but more effective learning communities where students develop the executive functioning, social awareness, and self-management skills essential for success beyond school walls.
References and Further Reading
Adams, R. S., & Biddle, B. J. (2022). Realities of teaching: Explorations with video tape. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Arlin, M. (2019). “Transitions: Juggling time, space, and engagement.” The Educational Forum, 83(2), 153-165.
Codding, R. S., & Smyth, C. A. (2020). “Decreasing transition time and increasing academic time: The impact of explicit timing and behavioral rehearsal.” Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 10(3), 190-205.
Emmer, E. T., & Evertson, C. M. (2021). Classroom management for middle and high school teachers (10th ed.). Pearson.
Jones, S. E., & Landon, T. (2018). “Time in transition: The significance of structure in the classroom.” Theory Into Practice, 41(1), 5-13.
Kounin, J. S. (1970). Discipline and group management in classrooms. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
McIntosh, K., Herman, K., Sanford, A., McGraw, K., & Florence, K. (2018). “Teaching transitions: Techniques for promoting success between lessons.” Teaching Exceptional Children, 37(1), 32-38.
Rosenshine, B. (2021). “Principles of instruction: Research-based strategies that all teachers should know.” American Educator, 36(1), 12-19.
Sousa, D. A. (2022). How the brain learns (6th ed.). Corwin Press.
Wong, H. K., & Wong, R. T. (2018). The first days of school: How to be an effective teacher (5th ed.). Harry K. Wong Publications.
