As an educational researcher and practitioner, I’ve observed that few concepts in education are simultaneously as fundamental and as contested as curriculum. Though we use the term daily in educational discourse, its meaning extends far beyond the common conception of “what is taught” to encompass profound questions about knowledge, power, and purpose in education.
Defining Curriculum
The word “curriculum” derives from the Latin word “currere,” meaning “to run” or “to proceed,” suggesting a course or pathway to be followed. In educational contexts, curriculum can be conceptualized at several levels of abstraction:
At its most basic, curriculum refers to the subjects or content taught in educational settings. However, a more comprehensive understanding recognizes curriculum as the totality of student experiences that occur in the educational process—both planned and unplanned, formal and informal, explicit and implicit.
Various definitions from leading curriculum theorists illustrate this range:
- Ralph Tyler defined curriculum pragmatically as “all the learning experiences planned and directed by the school to attain its educational goals.”
- John Dewey emphasized curriculum as “a continuous reconstruction of experience,” highlighting its dynamic and experiential nature.
- Michael Apple conceptualizes curriculum as a selection from a wider culture that reflects power relationships in society, asking not just what knowledge is taught but whose knowledge is privileged.
These varied perspectives reflect the reality that curriculum is not simply a neutral document but a complex construct that embodies educational philosophies, social values, and theories about knowledge and learning.
Types of Curriculum
Educational researchers have identified multiple dimensions of curriculum that operate simultaneously in educational settings:
Written or Intended Curriculum
This represents the officially sanctioned learning expectations as articulated in:
- State standards documents
- District curriculum guides
- Textbooks and commercial programs
- Course syllabi
- Unit and lesson plans
The written curriculum outlines what students should know and be able to do as a result of instruction.
Taught or Operational Curriculum
This encompasses what teachers actually deliver in classrooms, which may differ significantly from the written curriculum due to:
- Teacher interpretation and prioritization
- Time constraints
- Resource availability
- Student needs and interests
- Teacher expertise and preferences
Assessed Curriculum
This includes the knowledge and skills measured through:
- Standardized tests
- Teacher-created assessments
- Performance evaluations
- Portfolios and projects
The assessed curriculum often exerts powerful influence over what is taught, potentially narrowing the operational curriculum to focus on tested content.
Learned or Experienced Curriculum
This refers to what students actually take away from educational experiences, which may differ from what was intended or taught due to:
- Prior knowledge and misconceptions
- Individual learning styles
- Student engagement and motivation
- Cultural and linguistic backgrounds
- Cognitive development levels
Hidden Curriculum
This encompasses the unwritten, unofficial, and often unintended lessons, values, and perspectives that students learn in school:
- Behavioral expectations and social norms
- Time management and organizational systems
- Power relationships and authority structures
- Implicit messages about which knowledge is valued
- Attitudes toward diversity, competition, and success
The hidden curriculum often has more lasting impact than the explicit curriculum.
Null Curriculum
This concept, introduced by Elliot Eisner, refers to what schools do not teach—the subjects, perspectives, and skills that are systematically excluded:
- Marginalized historical narratives
- Alternative economic systems
- Non-Western philosophical traditions
- Emotional intelligence and relationship skills
- Practical life management abilities
These exclusions communicate powerful messages about what knowledge is valued and legitimate.
Curriculum Development Models
Various frameworks guide the process of curriculum development, reflecting different philosophical approaches:
The Tyler Model
Ralph Tyler’s rational-linear approach poses four fundamental questions:
1.What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
2.What educational experiences can be provided to attain these purposes?
3.How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
4.How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?
This systematic approach remains influential in standards-based curriculum development.
Wiggins and McTighe’s Understanding by Design
This contemporary framework emphasizes “backward design”:
1.Identify desired results (enduring understandings and essential questions)
2.Determine acceptable evidence of learning
3.Plan learning experiences and instruction
This approach prioritizes deep understanding over coverage of content.
Walker’s Deliberative Model
This process recognizes curriculum development as a complex, value-laden endeavor involving:
1.Platform development (articulating beliefs and values)
2.Deliberation (discussing alternatives and implications)
3.Design (creating materials and experiences)
This model acknowledges the inherently political nature of curriculum decisions.
Critical and Postmodern Approaches
These perspectives emphasize examining:
- Whose knowledge is represented and whose is marginalized
- How curriculum reproduces or challenges societal inequities
- The relationship between knowledge, power, and identity
- The socially constructed nature of disciplinary boundaries
These approaches focus less on technical development processes and more on critical analysis of curriculum’s social functions.
Influences on Curriculum
Multiple forces shape curriculum at various levels:
Philosophical Influences
Educational philosophies undergird curriculum decisions:
- Perennialism emphasizes enduring truths and classical knowledge
- Essentialism focuses on essential skills and academic disciplines
- Progressivism centers student interests and societal needs
- Reconstructionism aims to develop citizens who can transform society
- Critical theory examines how curriculum reproduces or challenges power structures
Social and Political Forces
Curriculum reflects broader societal contexts:
- Economic needs and workforce preparation goals
- Political ideologies and national priorities
- Social movements and cultural shifts
- Technological developments
- Globalization and international competition
Psychological Theories
Learning theories influence curriculum organization:
- Behaviorist approaches emphasize observable skills and incremental learning
- Cognitive theories focus on conceptual understanding and mental structures
- Constructivist perspectives emphasize active meaning-making
- Sociocultural approaches recognize learning as culturally situated
- Multiple intelligences theory suggests varied pathways to understanding
Practical Constraints
Real-world factors impact curriculum implementation:
- Available instructional time
- Teacher preparation and expertise
- Resource availability
- Assessment systems and accountability pressures
- School structures and schedules
Contemporary Curriculum Issues
Today’s curriculum landscape faces several significant challenges:
Standards Movement and Accountability
The emphasis on standards-based curriculum has:
- Increased consistency across educational settings
- Raised expectations for all students
- Sometimes narrowed curriculum to tested subjects
- Created tensions between depth and breadth
- Often privileged measurable outcomes over process-oriented learning
Technological Transformation
Digital technologies are reshaping curriculum through:
- Access to vast information resources
- New literacies and competencies
- Personalized learning platforms
- Changed notions of expertise and authority
- Global connectivity and collaboration
Equity and Representation
Critical questions about curriculum include:
- How diverse cultural perspectives are represented
- Whether curriculum provides windows and mirrors for all students
- How curriculum can support rather than marginalize diverse learners
- Whether dominant cultural narratives are presented as universal
- How differential access to enriched curriculum impacts opportunity gaps
Global Competitiveness vs. Local Relevance
Curriculum developers navigate tensions between:
- International benchmarking and standardization
- Culturally responsive and locally relevant learning
- Global skills and community-based knowledge
- Economic competitiveness and civic preparation
- Uniformity and customization
Conclusion
Curriculum represents far more than a list of topics or a collection of learning materials. It embodies our aspirations for the next generation, our theories about knowledge and learning, our values regarding what is worth knowing, and our vision for the kind of society we hope to create.
As educational leaders, teachers, parents, and citizens engage with curriculum questions, they are fundamentally addressing foundational issues: What knowledge is of most worth? Whose perspectives should be centered? How should learning be organized and assessed? What are the proper aims of education in a democratic society?
By recognizing curriculum as complex, value-laden, and multidimensional, we can engage in more thoughtful deliberation about these essential educational questions—decisions that profoundly shape the experiences and opportunities of students in our schools.
